Human Anatomy & Physiology Laboratory OER
- Textbook Formats
- KINS 2511 AP1Toggle Dropdown
- AP1 Lab Module 1 Introduction to the human body
- AP1 Lab Module 2 Bone histology and joints
- AP1 Lab Module 3 Cranial bones of the skull
- AP1 Lab Module 4 Facial bones of the skull and the thorax
- AP1 Lab Module 5 The Vertebral Column
- AP1 lab Module 6 The Girdles
- AP1 Lab Module 7 Upper Extremity Bones
- AP1 Lab Module 8 Lower Extremity Bones
- AP1 Lab Module 9 Selected muscles
- AP1 Lab Module 10 Lower Extremity muscles
- AP1 Lab Module 11 Muscle tissue and the skin
- AP1 Lab Module 12 Sensory organs
- AP1 Lab Module 13 The Spinal Cord
- AP1 Lab Module 14 Selected Nerves
- AP1 Lab Module 15 The Brain
- KINS 2512 AP2
- AP 2 Lab Module 1 Cardiac Anatomy
- AP2 Lab Module 2 Great Blood Vessels and Coronary Circulation
- AP2 Lab Module 3 Cardiac Physiology
- AP2 Lab Module 4 Selected Systemic Arteries and Veins
- AP2 Lab Module 5 Upper Extremity Blood Vessels
- AP2 Lab Module 6 Lower Extremity Blood Vessels
- AP2 Lab Module 7 Urinary Anatomy
- AP2 Lab Module 8 Urinary Physiology
- AP2 Lab Module 9 Respiratory Anatomy
- AP2 Lab Module 10 Respiratory Physiology
- AP2 Lab Module 11 Digestive Accessory Glands
- AP2 Lab Module 12 The GI Tract
- AP2 Lab Module 13 Selected Endocrine Glands
- AP2 Lab Module 14 The Reproductive System: assigned female at birth
- AP2 Lab Module 15 The Reproductive System: assigned male at birth
M8 LEARNING OUTCOMES
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Describe the major functions of the urinary system.
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List the three processes that take place in the nephron (i.e., filtration, reabsorption, and secretion).
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Describe the role of the nephron in urine production.
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Describe the composition of normal urine.
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Perform a virtual urinalysis of three samples of urine using the dipstick method and analyze the urinalysis for evidence of abnormality by comparing the results to a standard reference chart.
REQUIRED MATERIALS
- Models
- Kidney model
- Videos
- Virtual Lab on McGraw Hill
- Online lab: Urinalysis
- OpenStax Human Anatomy and Physiology textbook
SUMMARY OF REQUIRED ANATOMICAL STRUCTURES
Urine characteristics
The urinary system has many important functions. Most of these functions are related directly to urine production and include filtration of blood, removal of nitrogenous wastes, blood volume and blood pressure regulation, acid-base balance and electrolyte regulation. Urine formation is critical to our health and is the responsibility of the nephron - the structural and functional unit in the kidney. Most of them (85%) are located in the cortex and some are located at the junction with the medulla. Each kidney has approximately one million nephrons.
Each kidney filters approximately 1 liter of blood per minute. Blood is filtered from the glomerulus, a capillary bed, into the glomerular capsule through hydrostatic pressure. The fluid, now called filtrate, then enters the renal tubule where it is then termed tubular fluid. 99% of the filtrate created will be reabsorbed during the process of urine formation.
Urine can be characterized by its composition, volume, specific gravity, color, transparency, and smell. Determining both physical characteristics and chemical composition of urine provides a great deal of information about the health of the individual. Characteristics of urine change, depending on influences such as water intake, exercise, environmental temperature, nutrient intake, and other factors. These characteristics include:
- Appearance: colorless to deep amber due to a pigment known as urochrome
- Odor: as it stands, bacteria degrade urea to ammonia
- Specific gravity: 1.003 -1.032
- Osmolarity in mOsm/L: 50 (dilute urine)-1,200 (concentrated urine)
- pH range: 4.5 - 8.0, usually 6.0
- Chemical composition: normal healthy urine is sterile and formed from filtered blood. It is mostly water (95%) with solutes such as salts (Na+, K+, Cl-, Ca2+, Mg2+, H2PO4-, SO42-, NH4+), nitrogenous wastes (urea, creatinine, uric acid), some hormones, and small quantities of ketones. Some drugs can also be found within urine.
Urine volume is an important number regulated by the kidneys. Volume of urine can range up to 18L/day, but a normal urine volume is about 1-2L/day. This volume can increase (taking a diuretic, developing diabetes (mellitus and insipidus), drinking a lot of water when staying inside and resting) or decrease (working outside on a hot day without access to water, too many aquaporins or increasing permeability of collecting duct to water). Changes in urine output are known as:
- Anuria - <50 ml/day
- Oliguria - 300-500 ml/day
- Polyuria - >2L/day
Analysis of a patient's urine (urinalysis) is an easy, non-invasive, and quick way to determine if some diseases or infections are present. The presence of glucose, blood (erythrocytes), leukocytes, excess protein, or ketones is abnormal and indicates infection or disease.
- Glucose is normally fully absorbed back into the body from the filtrate. Its presence in urine indicates abnormally high levels of glucose, such as that found in diabetics.
- Erythrocytes (red blood cells) are not normally found in urine as they should not be able to pass through the filtration membrane. Their presence indicates disease or infection.
- Leukocytes are part of the immune response and should not be found in urine. The presence of leukocytes indicates infection, such as a kidney or urinary tract infection.
- Protein is not usually found in urine as it cannot typically pass into the filtrate. Presence of excess protein, known as proteinuria, may indicate problems with the kidney.
- Ketones are formed during fatty acid metabolism. A small amount of ketones in urine is normal. However, excessive ketones in urine is a sign of diabetes.
ASSESSMENT
McGraw Hill Online Lab 3: Urinalyses